Avian Longevity Records

Longevity Records
Life Spans of Mammals, Birds, Amphibians, Reptiles, and Fish; James R. Carey and Debra S. Judge; Odense University Press, ISBN 87-7838-539-3

Birds

Table 2. Record Life Spans (years) of Birds

((+) indicates that individual was still alive at the time that life span was recorded)

Order/Family Genus/Species Common Name Wild Capt. M/F Reference
Anseriformes
Anatidae Aix sponsa Wood duck 17.6   m [29]
  Aix sponsa Wood duck 22.5   m [78]
  Alopochen aegyptiacus Egyptian goose   25.5 x [50]
  Anas acuta Common pintail 20.5   m [29]
  Anas acuta Northern pintail 21.3   m [78]
  Anas americana American wigeon 21.3   m [29]
  Anas americana American wigeon 9.0   x [37]
  Anas clypeata Northern shoveler 16.6   m [29]
  Anas crecca Green-winged teal 20.5   x [29]
  Anas crecca Green-winged teal 20.3   f [29]
  Anas cyanoptera Cinnamon teal 12.9   m [29]
  Anas diazi Mexican duck 5.5   m [29]
  Anas discors Blue-winged teal 17.4   m [29]
  Anas discors Blue-winged teal 22.3   f [78]
  Anas fulvigula Mottled duck 13.4   m [29]
  Anas fulvigula Mottled duck (+) 13.0 20.0 x [132]
  Anas laysanensis Laysan teal 11.8   f [29]
  Anas penelope Eurasian wigeon 8.6   m [29]
  Anas penelope Eurasian wigeon   6.4 x [50]
  Anas platyrhynchos Mallard 23.4   m [29]
  Anas platyrhynchos Mallard 29.0   x [37]
  Anas platyrhynchos Mallard 20.5   x [90]
  Anas rubripes American black duck 26.4   m [29]
  Anas strepera Gadwall 17.7   m [29]
  Anas strepera Gadwall   5.4 x [50]
  Anas strepera Gadwall 19.5   m [78]
  Anas wyvilliana Hawaiian duck 3.7   f [78]
  Anser albifrons Greater white-fronted goose 20.3   f [29]
  Anser albifrons White-fronted goose   27.8 x [50]
  Anser albifrons Greater white-fronted goose 22.3   m [78]
  Anser albifrons Greater white-fronted goose 22.3 47.0 f [116]
  Anser brachyrhynchus Pink-footed goose 22.0   x [37]
  Anser caerulescens Snow goose 26.6   x [29]
  Anser caerulescens Blue goose 19.5   x [29]
  Anser caerulescens Snow (blue) goose 24.5   x [78]
  Anser canagica Emperor goose 9.0   x [17]
  Anser canagica Emperor goose 6.3   f [29]
  Anser domesticus Domestic goose   31.0 x [50]
  Anser fabalis Bean goose   23.0 x [50]
  Anser rossii Ross? goose 19.6   m [29]
  Anser rossii Ross? goose 21.5   m [78] [121]
  Aythya affinis Lesser scaup 18.3   m [29]
  Aythya americana Redhead 21.4   x [29]
  Aythya aythya Canvasback 18.8   m [29]
  Aythya collaris Ring-necked duck 16.2   m [29]
  Aythya collaris Ring-necked duck 20.4   m [78]
  Aythya marila Greater scaup 18.3   m [29]
  Aythya valisineria Canvasback 22.4   m [78]
  Branta bernicla Atlantic brant 16.6   x [29]
  Branta bernicla Brent goose   21.8 x [50]
  Branta bernicla hrota (Atlantic) brant 21.6   f [78]
  Branta bernicla nigricans (Black) brant 25.8   m [78]
  Branta canadensis Canada goose 23.5   f [29]
  Branta canadensis Canada goose 24.3   m [78]
  Branta nigricans Black brant 19.6   f [29]
  Bucephala albeola Bufflehead 12.5   m [29]
  Bucephala albeola Bufflehead 14.9   m [37]
  Bucephala albeola Bufflehead 11.5   f [37]
  Bucephala clangula Common goldeneye 14.3   x [29]
  Bucephala clangula Common goldeneye 12.0   f [40]
  Bucephala clangula Common goldeneye 11.0   m [40]
  Bucephala islandica Barrow?s goldeneye 15.3   m [29]
  Cereopsis novaehollandiae Cape barren goose   28.1 x [50]
  Clangula hyemalis Oldsquaw 15.3   m [29]
  Clangula hyemalis Oldsquaw 15.6   f [78]
  Cygnus buccinator Trumpeter swan 23.8   m [29]
  Cygnus buccinator Trumpeter swan (+)   29.5   [50]
  Cygnus buccinator Trumpeter swan 24.0 32.5 x [76] [83]
  Cygnus c. columbianus Tundra (whistling) swan (+) 19.7   f [78]
  Cygnus columbianus Whistling swan 16.2   f [29]
  Cygnus columbianus Tundra swan (+) 21.0   x [88]
  Cygnus olor Mute swan 13.3   f [29]
  Cygnus olor Mute swan (+) 21.0   x [37]
  Cygnus olor Mute swan 26.8   m [78]
  Dendrocygna autumnalis Black-bellied whistling duck 8.2   f [29]
  Dendrocygna bicolor Fulvous whistling duck 6.5   m [29]
  Lophodytes cucullatus Hooded merganser 11.3   f [29]
  Lophodytes cucullatus Hooded merganser 10.3   x [38]
  Melanitta deglandi White-winged scoter 11.7   f [29]
  Melanitta fusca White-winged scoter 12.0   x [37]
  Melanitta fusca White-winged scoter 15.6   f [78]
  Mergus merganser Common merganser 13.4   f [29]
  Mergus serrator Red-breasted merganser 5.4   x [29]
  Oxyura australis Australian blue-billed duck   16.0 x [37]
  Oxyura jamaicensis Ruddy duck 13.6   m [29]
  Plectropterus gambensis Spur-winged goose   11.3 x [50]
  Polysticta stelleri Stellar?s eider (+) 14.3   f [78]
  Polysticta stelleri Steller?s eider 12.3   m [29]
  Somateria mollissima Common eider 14.8   f [29]
  Somateria mollissima Common eider 21.3   f [78]
  Somateria mollissima Common eider 23.0   x [37]
  Somateria spectabilis King eider 18.9   f [29]
  Tachyeres cinereus Steamer duck   10.2 x [50]
Apodiformes
Apodidae Aeronautes sexatilis White-throated swift 5.7   x [30]
  Apus apus Swift   21.0 x [141]
  Chaertura vaux Vaux?s swift 5.1   x [30]
  Chaetura pelagica Chimney swift 14.0   m [30]
  Cypseloides niger Black swift 6.0   x [30]
Caprimulgiformes
Caprimulgidae Caprimulgus vociferus Whippoorwill 4.0   x [30]
  Chordeiles minor Common nighthawk 9.0   f [30]
  Phalaenoptilus nuttallii Common poorwill (+) 3.0   x [35]
Casuariiformes
Casuariidae Casuarius papuanus Westermann?s cassowary   26.0 x [50]
  Casuarius unappendiculatus Blyth?s cassowary   22.0 x [50]
Dromiceidae Dromaius novaehollandiae Emu (+)   10.0 x [37]
  Dromaius n. hollandiae Windsor emu   16.6 x [50]
Charadriiformes
Alcidae Aethia cristatella Crested auklet 7.6   x [73]
  Aethia pusilla Least auklet 4.4   x [72] [74]
  Alca torda Razorbill 6.2   x [29]
  Alca torda Razorbill 6.4   x [78]
  Cepphus columba Pigeon guillemot 9.3   x [29]
  Cepphus columba Pigeon guillemot 14.0   x [42]
  Cepphus columba Pigeon guillemot 11.8   x [78]
  Cepphus grylle Black guillemot 12.1   f [29]
  Cerorhinca monocerata Rhinoceros auklet 6.2   x [29]
  Cerorhinca monocerata Rhinoceros auklet 7.4   x [78]
  Fratercula arctica Atlantic puffin 20.0   x [78]
  Fratercula arctica Atlantic puffin 13.2   x [29]
  Fratercula cirrhata Tufted puffin 6.0   x [78]
  Ptychoramphus aleuticus Cassin?s auklet 5.7   x [29]
  Ptychoramphus aleuticus Cassin?s auklet 10.2   x [78]
  Ptychoramphus aleuticus Cassin?s auklet (+) 6.0   x [91]
  Synthliboramphus antiquus Ancient murrelet 5.0   x [29]
  Synthliboramphus antiquus Ancient murrelet 4.4   x [51]
  Synthliboramphus hypoleucus Xantus? murrelet 15.0   x [28]
  Synthliboramphus hypoleucus Xantus? murrelet 9.8   x [78]
  Uria aalge Common murre 26.4   x [29]
  Uria lomvia Thick-billed murre 22.7   x [29]
Charadriidae Charadrius alexandrinus Snowy plover 7.0   x [29]
  Charadrius alexandrinus Snowy plover (+) 11.0   x [78]
  Charadrius alexandrinus Snowy plover (+) 15.0   m [107]
  Charadrius melodus Piping plover 14.0   m [29]
  Charadrius melodus Piping plover 11.0   x [144]
  Charadrius semipalmatus Semipalmated plover 8.2   x [29]
  Charadrius vociferus Killdeer 10.9   x [29]
  Pluvialis dominica Lesser golden plover 4.8   x [78]
  Pluvialis squatarola Black-bellied plover 12.7   x [29]
  Pluvialis squatarola Black-bellied plover 20.3   x [62]
Haematopodidae Haematopus bachmani Black oystercatcher 6.2   x [29]
  Haematopus bachmani Black oystercatcher 16.0   x [115]
  Haematopus ostralegus European oystercatcher 36.0   x [102]
  Haematopus palliatus American oystercatcher 14.0   x [29]
  Haematopus palliatus American oystercatcher 17.0   x [104]
Laridae Anous minutus Black noddy 21.8   x [78]
  Anous stolidus Noddy tern 24.9   x [29]
  Anous tenuirostris Black noddy 16.1   x [29]
  Chlidonias niger Black tern 8.4   x [29]
  Chlidonias niger Black tern 17.2   x [33]
  Gygis alba Fairy tern 17.8   x [29]
  Larus argentatus Herring gull 27.3   x [29]
  Larus argentatus Herring gull (+)   44.0 x [49]
  Larus argentatus Herring gull 28.0   x [78]
  Larus argentatus Herring gull 19.0   x [90]
  Larus argentatus Herring gull (+) 30.0 40.0 x [136]
  Larus atricilla Laughing gull 15.1   x [29]
  Larus californicus California gull 13.3   x [29]
  Larus canus Mew gull 18.2   x [29]
  Larus delawarensis Ring-billed gull 25.1   x [29]
  Larus delawarensis Ring-billed gull 31.8   x [129]
  Larus glaucescens Glaucous-winged gull 32.0   x [25]
  Larus glaucescens Glaucous-winged gull 22.1   x [29]
  Larus glaucescens Glaucous-winged gull 22.8   x [78]
  Larus marinus Great black-backed gull 23.3   x [29]
  Larus occidentalis Western gull 27.8   x [29]
  Larus occidentalis Western gull 25.0   x [113]
  Larus pacificus Pacific gull   14.5 x [50]
  Larus pipixcan Franklin?s gull (+) 9.0   x [29]
  Larus pipixcan Franklin?s gull 9.4   x [29]
  Pagophila eburnea Ivory gull 8.0   x [78]
  Pagophila eburnea Ivory gull 17.0   x [137]
  Procelsterna cerulea Blue-gray noddy 11.0   x [29]
  Procelsterna cerulea Blue-gray noddy (+) 14.0   x [78]
  Rissa brevirostris Red-legged kittiwake 4.0   x [21]
  Rissa tridactyla Black-legged kittiwake 5.0   x [59]
  Rissa tridactyla Black-legged kittiwake 7.0   x [29]
  Sterna albifrons Least tern 21.1   x [29]
  Sterna antillarum Least tern 24.1   x [78]
  Sterna caspia Caspian tern 26.2   x [29]
  Sterna dougallii Roseate tern 12.1   x [29]
  Sterna dougallii Roseate tern (+) 14.0   x [78]
  Sterna elegans Elegant tern 8.9   x [29]
  Sterna forsteri Forster?s tern 10.3   x [29]
  Sterna forsteri Forster?s tern 12.0   x [78]
  Sterna fuscata Sooty tern 32.0   x [29]
  Sterna lunata Gray-backed tern 16.2   x [29]
  Sterna lunata Gray-backed tern (+) 18.0   x [78]
  Sterna maxima Royal tern 17.0   x [29]
  Sterna maxima Royal tern 22.2   x [78]
  Sterna nilotica Gull-billed tern 6.3   x [29]
  Sterna nilotica Gull-billed tern (+) 16.0   x [122]
  Sterna paradisaea Arctic tern 34.0   x [29]
  Sterna sandvicensis Sandwich tern 16.1   x [29]
Recurvirostridae Himantopus mexicanus knudsensi Black-necked (Hawaiian) stilt 5.2   f [78]
  Recurvirostra americana American avocet 9.0   f [78]
Rynchopidae Rhynchops niger Black skimmer 20.0   x [30]
Scolopacidae Arenaria interpres Ruddy turnstone 14.3   x [29]
  Bartramia longicauda Upland sandpiper 5.2   x [29]
  Calidris alba Sanderling 5.3   x [29]
  Calidris alba Sanderling 13.1   x [78]
  Calidris alpina Dunlin 9.3   m [29]
  Calidris alpina Dunlin (+) 12.4   x [78]
  Calidris canutus Red knot 6.2   x [29]
  Calidris canutus Red knot 10.2   x [78]
  Calidris fuscicollis White-rumped sandpiper 7.0   x [29]
  Calidris himantopus Stilt sandpiper (+) 11.1   x [78]
  Calidris mauri Western sandpiper 9.2   x [29]
  Calidris melanotos Pectoral sandpiper 5.9   x [78]
  Calidris minutilla Least sandpiper 11.3   x [29]
  Calidris minutilla Least sandpiper 16.0   f [78]
  Calidris minutilla Least sandpiper 16.0   m [95]
  Calidris ptilocnemis Rock sandpiper 7.3   x [78]
  Calidris pusilla Semipalmated sandpiper 12.1   x [29]
  Calidris pusilla Semipalmated sandpiper 12.0   x [63]
  Calidris pusilla Semipalmated sandpiper 12.2   x [78]
  Catoptrophorus semipalmatus Willet 8.9   m [29]
  Gallinago gallinago Common snipe 9.3   x [29]
  Limnodromus griseus Short-billed dowitcher 7.6   x [29]
  Limnodromus griseus Short-billed dowitcher 13.3   x [78]
  Limnodromus scolopaceus Long-billed dowitcher 8.3   x [29]
  Limosa fedoa Marbled godwit 8.6   x [29]
  Limosa lapponica Bar-tailed godwit 3.9   x [78]
  Lobipes lobatus Northern phalarope 5.0   f [29]
  Micropalama himantopus Stilt sandpiper 9.1   x [29]
  Numenius arquata Eurasian curlew 31.5   x [84]
  Numenius phaeopus Whimbrel 11.0   f [29]
  Numenius phaeopus Whimbrel   8.8 x [50]
  Numenius tahitiensis Bristle-thighed curlew 11.8   x [78]
  Phalaropus tricolor Wilson?s phalarope 10.0   m/f [30]
  Scolopax minor American woodcock 9.3   f [29]
  Scolopax minor American woodcock 11.3   f [78]
  Tringa flavipes Lesser yellowlegs 4.8   x [29]
  Tringa macularia Spotted sandpiper 12.0   m [29]
Stercorariidae Stercorarius longicaudus Long-tailed jaeger 8.1   x [29]
Ciconiiformes
Ardeidae Ardea cinerea Heron   15.8 x [50]
  Ardea cinerea Heron   24.0 x [138]
  Ardea cocoi Cocoi heron   24.4 x [50]
  Ardea goliath Goliath heron   22.9 x [50]
  Ardea herodias Great blue heron 23.3   x [29]
  Botaurus lentiginosus American bittern 8.3   x [29]
  Botaurus lentiginosus American bittern (+) 8.0   x [29]
  Bubulcus ibis Cattle egret 17.0   x [29]
  Bubulcus ibis Cattle egret 23.0   x [135]
  Butorides striatus Green heron 7.9   x [29]
  Butorides virescens Green heron 11.6   x [29]
  Egretta alba Great egret 22.8   x [29]
  Egretta caerulea Little blue heron 13.9   x [29]
  Egretta rufescens Reddish egret 12.3   x [29]
  Egretta thula Snowy egret 11.3   x [29]
  Egretta thula Snowy egret 17.6   x [78]
  Hydranassa tricolor Louisiana heron 17.7   x [29]
  Nycticorax nycticorax Black-crowned night heron 21.0   x [7] [64]
[103]
  Nyticorax nycticorax Black-crowned night heron 21.1   f [29]
  Nycticorax violaceus Yellow-crowned night heron 6.3   x [78]
Balaenicipitidae Balaeniceps rex Shoebill   36.0 x [37]
  Balaeniceps rex Shoebill   35.7 m [50]
Ciconiidae Ciconia abdimii Abdim?s stork (+)   21.0 x [37]
  Ciconia boyciana Oriental white stork   48.0 x [37]
  Ciconia ciconia European white stork (+) 33.0 35.0 x [37]
  Ciconia episcopus Woolly-necked stork (+)   30.0 x [37]
  Ciconia maguari Maguari stork (+)   20.0 x [37]
  Ciconia nigra Black stork 18.0 31.0 x [37]
  Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus Black-necked stork (+)   34.0 x [37]
  Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis Saddle-billed stork (+)   36.0 x [37]
  Jabiru mycteria Jabiru (+)   36.0 x [37]
  Leptoptilos crumeniferus Marabou 25.0 41.0 x [37]
  Leptoptilos dubius Greater adjutant   43.0 x [37]
  Leptoptilos javanicus Lesser adjutant   30.0 x [37]
  Mycteria americana Wood stork (+)   27.0 x [37]
  Mycteria americana Wood stork 6.5   x [78]
  Mycteria ibis Yellow-billed stork (+)   19.0 x [37]
  Mycteria leucocephala Painted stork (+)   28.0 x [37]
Threskiornithidae Ajaia alaja Roseate spoonbill 7.8   x [29]
  Eudocimus albus White ibis (+) 16.3 20.0 x [29] [132]
  Nipponia nippon Japanese crested ibis   17.0 x [37]
  Platalea leucorodia Eurasian spoonbill 28.0   x [37]
  Plegadis chihi White-faced ibis 14.5 14.0 x [29]
  Plegadis falcinellus Glossy ibis 14.3   x [29]
  Threskiornis aethiopicus Sacred ibis 21.0   x [37]
  Threskiornis aethiopicus Sacred ibis   29.2 x [50]
Columbiformes
Columbidae Columba fasciata Band-tailed pigeon 15.5   x [30]
  Columba fasciata Band-tailed pigeon 18.5   x [78]
  Columba leucocephala White-crowned pigeon 12.2   x [30]
  Columba leucocephala White-crowned pigeon 14.4   x [78]
  Columba leucocephala White-crowned pigeon 8.3   x [90]
  Columba livia Rock dove   35.0 x [48]
  Columba livia Rock dove (+) 6.0   x [71]
  Columbina inca Inca dove 7.8   x [30]
  Columbina inca Inca dove   13.3 x [50]
  Columbina passerina Common ground dove 6.1   x [30]
  Columbina passerina Common ground dove 7.2   f [78]
  Geopelia striata Barred ground dove   14.0 x [50]
  Leptotila verreauxi White-tipped dove 8.6   x [30]
  Leucosarcia melanoleuca Wonga-wonga pigeon   16.3 x [50]
  Streptopelia chinensis Spotted dove 7.7   x [30]
  Streptopelia decaocto Indian turtle dove   17.9 x [50]
  Zenaida asiatica White-winged dove 21.8   x [30]
  Zenaida macroura Mourning dove 19.3   x [30]
Coraciiformes
Bucerotidae Ceratogymna atrata African black-wattled hornbill   19.3 x [50]
  Didioceros bicornis Great Indian hornbill   33.4 x [50]
Bucorvidae Bucorvus cafer (leadbeateri) Southern ground hornbill (+)   70.0 x [75]
  Coracias affinis Burmese roller   8.9 x [50]
  Coracias gamilus European roller   8.9 x [50]
Meropidae Merops bullockoides White-fronted bee-eater 7.0   x [50]
  Momotus bahamensis Swainson?s motmot   10.4 x [50]
Cuculiformes
Coccyzidae Coccyzus americanus Yellow-billed cuckoo 5.0   x [30]
  Coccyzus erythrophthalmus Black-billed cuckoo 5.0   x [30]
Neomorphidae Geococcyx californianus Greater roadrunner (+) 3.8   m [78]
Dinornithiformes
Apterygidae Apteryx australis Brown kiwi   35.0 x [37]
  Apteryx mantelli Kiwi   20.0 x [50]
Falconiformes
Accipitridae Accipiter audax Wedge-tailed eagle   40.0 x [37]
  Accipiter cooperii Cooper?s hawk 7.5   f [29]
  Accipiter cooperii Cooper?s hawk 10.5   f [78] [101]
  Accipiter cooperii Cooper?s hawk 12.0   x [120]
  Accipiter gentilis Northern goshawk 12.8   f [29]
  Accipiter gentilis Northern goshawk   9.4 x [50]
  Accipiter gentilis Northern goshawk 13.0   f [78]
  Accipiter gentilis Northern goshawk 19.0   x [37]
  Accipiter heliaca Eastern imperical eagle 55.0 56.0 x [37]
  Accipiter nipalensis Steppe eagle   41.0 x [37]
  Accipiter nisus Eurasian sparrowhawk 15.0   x [37]
  Accipiter striatus Sharp-shinned hawk 9.8   f [29] [101]
  Accipiter gentilis Northern goshawk 19.0   x [101]
  Accipiter gentilis Northern goshawk 13.0   x [101]
  Accipiter nisus nisus Sparrowhawk 15.5   x [101]
  Aegypius monachus Eurasian black vulture   39.0 x [37]
  Aegypius monachus Eurasian black vulture 25.5   x [101]
  Aquila adalberti Spanish imperial eagle   44.5 x [50]
  Aquila audax Wedge-tailed eagle   26.4 x [50]
  Aquila audax Wedge-tailed eagle 5.9   x [101]
  Aquila chrysaetos Golden eagle 10.4   x [29]
  Aquila chrysaetos Golden eagle 17.1   m [78] [101]
  Aquila chrysaetos Golden eagle 25.7   x [101]
  Aquila chrysaetos Golden eagle 38.0   x [37]
  Aquila pomarina Lesser spotted eagle 26.1   x [37] [101]
  Aquila pomarina Lesser spotted eagle   22.3 x [50]
  Aquila rapax belisarius Tawny eagle   40.3 f [50]
  Aquila wahlbergi Wahlberg?s eagle 11.8   x [101]
  Butastur indicus indicus Gray-faced buzzard 8.5   x [101]
  Buteo buteo Eurasian buzzard 25.0   x [37]
  Buteo buteo buteo Buzzard 25.3   x [101]
  Buteo jamaicensis Red-tailed hawk 19.8   x [29]
  Buteo jamaicensis Red-tailed hawk 21.5   x [78] [101]
  Buteo jamaicensis Red-tailed hawk   29.5 f [108]
  Buteo jamaicensis Red-tailed hawk 21.4   x [108]
  Buteo lagopus Rough-legged hawk 17.8   f [29] [101]
  Buteo lagopus Rough-legged hawk 18.0   x [37]
  Buteo lagopus Rough-legged hawk 10.9   x [101]
  Buteo lineatus Red-shouldered hawk 20.0   x [29]
  Buteo lineatus Red-shouldered hawk 19.9   x [29] [101]
  Buteo platypterus Broad-winged hawk 14.3   x [29]
  Buteo platypterus Broad-winged hawk 18.3   x [78] [101]
  Buteo regalis Ferruginous hawk 15.9   x [29] [101]
  Buteo regalis Ferruginous hawk 20.0   x [65] [89]
  Buteo swainsoni Swainson?s hawk 15.9   x [29] [101]
  Buteo swainsoni Swainson?s hawk 16.0   x [37]
  Buteogallus anthracinus Common black hawk 13.5   x [124]
  Circaetus cinereus Brown snake eagle 6.8   x [101]
  Circaetus gallicus Short-toed snake eagle 17.0   x [37]
  Circaetus gallicus Short-toed eagle 17.3   x [101]
  Circus aeruginosus Marsh harrier 16.7   x [101]
  Circus aeruginosus approximans Swamp harrier 18.2   x [101]
  Circus aeruginosus Western marsh-harrier 16.4   x [37]
  Circus approximans Pacific marsh-harrier 18.0   x [37]
  Circus cyaneus Northern harrier 16.4   x [29] [101]
  Circus cyaneus Hen harrier 16.0   x [37]
  Circus macroarus Pallid harrier 13.5   x [101]
  Circus pygargus Montagu?s harrier 16.0   x [37]
  Circus pygargus Montagu?s harrier 16.3   x [101]
  Elanus caeruleus axillanis Black-shouldered kite 6.0   x [101]
  Elanus leucurus White-tailed kite (+) 5.9   x [29]
  Geranoaetus melanoleucus Chilean eagle   42.0 x [50]
  Gypaetus barbatus Bearded vulture (+)   40.0 x [37]
  Gypaetus barbatus Bearded vulture   30.0 x [50]
  Gypohierax angolensis Sea eagle   27.1 x [50]
  Gyps africanus White-backed vulture   19.7 x [50]
  Gyps bengalensis Bengal vulture   17.2 x [50]
  Gyps coprotheres Cape vulture (griffon) 11.25   x [101]
  Gyps fulvus Eurasian griffon (+)   41.4 x [34]
  Gyps fulvus Eurasian griffon   37.0 x [37]
  Haliaeetus albicilla White-tailed sea-eagle 27.0 42.0 x [37]
  Haliaeetus albicilla White-tailed eagle 21.1   x [101]
  Haliaeetus leucocephalus Bald eagle 10.4   x [29]
  Haliaeetus leucocephalus Bald eagle   47.0 x [37]
  Haliaeetus leucocephalus Bald eagle (+) 21.9   m [78] [101]
  Haliaeetus leucocephalus leucocephalus White-headed sea eagle   33.1 x [50]
  Haliaeetus leucocephalus alascanus Alaskan bald eagle   28.7 x [50]
  Haliastur sphenarus Whistling kite 10.9   x [101]
  Harpia harpyja Harpy eagle   16.8 x [50]
  Harpyopsis novaeguineae New Guinea eagle   30.0 x [37]
  Hieraaetus fasciatus Bonelli?s eagle   20.0 x [37]
  Hieraaetus morphnoides Little eagle 10.3   x [101]
  Ictinia mississippiensis Mississippi kite 8.0   x [78] [101]
  Kaupifalco monogrammicus Lizard buzzard 8.6   x [101]
  Lophoictinia isura Square-tailed kite (+) 17.0   x [2]
  Milvus migrans Black kite 23.7   x [101]
  Milvus migrans Black kite 23.0   x [37]
  Milvus milvus Red kite   38.0 x [37]
  Milvus milvus Red kite 26.0   x [84]
  Milvus milvus Red kite 25.8   x [101]
  Neophron percnopterus Egyptian vulture   37.0 x [37]
  Parabuteo unicinctus Harris? hawk   25.0 f [4]
  Parabuteo unicinctus Harris? hawk 11.0   x [29]
  Parabuteo unicinctus Harris? hawk 10.0   x [29]
  Parabuteo unicinctus Harris? hawk 12.6   f [78] [101]
  Pernis apivorus Western honey-buzzard 29.0   x [37] [101]
  Rostrhamus sociabilis Snail kite 17.0   x [6]
  Rostrhamus sociabilis Snail kite 7.0   x [78] [101]
Cathartidae Cathartes aura Turkey vulture 16.8   x [29] [101]
  Coragyps atratus Black vulture 25.5   x [29]
  Gymnogyps californianus California condor 45.0   x [37]
  Gymnogyps californianus California condor   36.5 x [50]
  Sarcorhamphus papa King vulture   40.0 x [46]
  Sarcorhamphus papa King vulture   23.3 x [50]
Falconidae Falco berigora Brown falcon 10.5   x [101]
  Falco berigora Brown falcon   16.0 x [37]
  Falco columbarius Merlin 7.8   x [29] [101]
  Falco columbarius Merlin 12.5   x [101]
  Falco columbarius Merlin 8.0   x [106]
  Falco eleonorae Eleonora?s falcon 6.0   x [101]
  Falco mexicanus Prairie falcon 9.1   m [29]
  Falco mexicanus Prairie falcon 10.6   f [78] [101]
  Falco naumanni Lesser kestrel 6.2   x [101]
  Falco peregrinus Peregrine falcon 12.3   x [29] [101]
  Falco peregrinus Peregrine falcon 16.3   x [101]
  Falco rupicoloides White-eyed kestrel 6.5   x [101]
  Falco sparverius American kestrel 11.6   f [29] [101]
  Falco subbuteo longipennis Little falcon 10.5   x [101]
  Falco subbuteo subbuteo European hobby 10.8   x [101]
  Falco tinnunculus Common kestrel 16.2   x [101]
  Falco tinnunculus Common kestrel 16.0   x [37]
  Falco vespertinus vespertinus Red-footed falcon 12.3   x [101]
  Polyborus cheriway Cheriway caracara   25.8 x [50]
  Polyborus plancus Crested caracara 8.9   x [78]
  Polyborus tharus Brazilian caracara   37.6 x [50]
Pandionidae Pandion haliaetus Osprey 21.9   x [29]
  Pandion haliaetus Osprey 25.0   x [37] [101]
  Pandion haliaetus Osprey 23.0   x [78]
  Pandion haliaetus Osprey 24.8   x [101]
Sagittariidae Sagittarius serpentarius Secretary bird   18.6 x [5] [50]
Galliformes
Cracidae Crax globulosa Wattled curassow (+)   20.0 x [37]
  Crax rubra Great curassow   24.0 x [37]
  Mitu tuberosa Razor-billed curassow   23.0 x [37]
  Ortalis vetula Plain chachalaca 0.2   m [29]
Megapodiidae Macrocephalon maleo     23.0 x [37]
Odontophoridae Callipepla gambelii Gambel?s quail 7.4   m [29]
  Callipepla californica California quail 6.9   x [29]
  Colinus virginianus Common bobwhite 6.4   m [29]
Phasianidae Alectoris rufa Red-legged partridge   6.25 x [50]
  Bonasa umbellus Ruffed grouse 7.6   x [29]
  Bonasa umbellus Ruffed grouse 8.5   f [78]
  Dendragapus canadensis Spruce grouse 13.0   f [10]
  Dendragapus canadensis Spruce grouse 13.0   m [10]
  Dendragapus canadensis Spruce grouse 5.3   f [29]
  Dendragapus obscurus Blue grouse 10.9   m [29]
  Dendragapus obscurus Blue grouse (+) 14.0   m [147]
  Dendragapus obscurus Blue grouse (+) 11.0   f [147]
  Gallus gallus Red junglefowl   30.0 x [98]
  Lagopus leucurus White-tailed ptarmigan 15.0   m [13]
  Lagopus leucurus White-tailed ptarmigan 12.0   f [13]
  Meleagris gallopavo Wild turkey 12.5   x [29]
  Meleagris gallopavo Wild turkey   12.3 x [50]
  Meleagris gallopavo Wild turkey 13.0   f [145]
  Pavo cristatus Peafowl   23.2 x [50]
  Perdix perdix Gray partridge 5.17   x [27]
  Perdix perdix Gray partridge (+)   5.0 x [50]
  Phasianus colchicus Common pheasant   27.0 x [50]
  Tetrao urogallus Western capercaillie   18.0 x [37]
  Tympanuchus cupido Greater prairie chicken 1.5   x [119]
  Tympanuchus pallidicinctus Lesser prairie chicken 13.5   x [29]
  Tympanuchus phasianellus Sharp-tailed grouse 6.3   m [29]
Gaviiformes
Gaviidae Gavia arctica Black-throated diver 28.0   x [37]
  Gavia immer Common loon 7.8   x [29]
  Gavia immer Great northern diver(+) 20.0   x [37]
  Gavia stellata Red-throated diver 23.0   x [37]
Gruiformes
Gruidae Grus americana Whooping crane 30.0   x [8] [85]
[97]
  Grus americana Whooping crane 7.3   x [78]
  Grus americana Whooping crane   40.0 x [100]
  Grus antigone Sarus crane   26.0 x [50]
  Grus canadensis Sandhill crane 18.3   x [29]
  Grus canadensis Sandhill crane 19.4   x [78]
  Grus canadensis Sandhill crane 21.5   x [134]
  Grus grus lilfordi Lord Lilford?s crane   39.4 x [50]
  Grus japonensis Manchurian crane   25.2 x [50]
  Grus leucauchen White-necked crane   25.8 x [50]
  Grus leucogeranus Asiatic white crane   36.2 m [50]
  Grus leucogeranus Asiatic white crane   32.3 f [50]
  Grus monachus Hooded crane   24.0 x [50]
  Grus rubicunda     33.0 x [50]
Otididae Otis tarda Great bustard   28.3 x [50]
Rallidae Fulica americana American coot 19.5   x [29]
  Fulica americana American coot 22.3   f [78]
  Gallinula chloropus Common gallinule 10.5   x [29]
  Gallirallus australus Weka   13.8 x [50]
  Gallirallus brachypterus New Zealand weka rail   12.3 x [50]
  Laterallus jamicensis Black rail 2.4   m [47]
  Rallus longirostris Clapper rail 7.5   m [29]
Musophagiformes
Musophagidae Turacus leucotis donaldsoni Donaldson Smith?s touraco   12.4 x [50] [77]
Passeriformes
Aegithalidae Psaltiparus minimus Bushtit (+) 8.4   m [77]
Alaudidae Eremophila alpestris Horned lark 7.1   m [30]
  Eremophila alpestris Horned lark 7.9   x [78]
  Eremophila alpestris Horned lark 8.0   x [78]
Bombycillidae Bombycilla cedrorum Cedar waxwing 7.0   x [77]
  Bombycilla garrulus Bohemian waxwing 5.8   x [77]
Certhiidae Certhia familiaris Brown creeper (+) 4.6   x [77]
Cinclidae Cinclus mexicanus American dipper (+) 5.1   m [77]
Corcoracidae Corcorax melanorhamphos White-winged chough   16.3 x [50]
  Struthidea cinerea Apostlebird   25.0 x [50]
Corvidae Aphelocoma coerulescens Scrub jay 15.8   x [30]
  Aphelocoma ultramarina Mexican jay 19.0   m [16]
  Aphelocoma ultramarina Gray-breasted (Mexican) jay 10.8   x [30]
  Aphelocoma ultramarina Gray-breasted jay 17.6   x [78]
  Corvus brachyrhynchos American crow 14.6   x [30]
  Corvus brachyrhynchos American crow 13.8   x [90]
  Corvus caurinus Northwestern crow 12.8   x [30]
  Corvus corax Common raven 13.3   x [30]
  Corvus corax Raven   24.7 x [50]
  Corvus cornix Hooded crow   16.8 x [50]
  Corvus corone Carrion crow   13.0 f [50]
  Corvus corone Carrion crow   11.0 m [50]
  Corvus coronoides Australian crow or raven   21.8 x [50]
  Corvus cryptoleucus Chihuahuan (white-necked) raven 12.5   x [30]
  Corvus frugilegus Rook   14.0 f [50]
  Corvus ossifragus Fish crow 14.5   x [30]
  Cyanocitta cristata Blue jay 18.3   x [30]
  Cyanocitta cristata Blue jay 16.3   x [78]
  Cyanocitta stelleri Steller?s jay 11.0   m [30]
  Cyanocitta stelleri Steller?s jay 16.1   x [78]
  Cyanocorax caeruleus Azure jay (+)   36.0 x [31]
  Cyanocorax yncas Green jay 10.7   x [30]
  Garrulus glandavius Jay   17.0 x [50] [112]
  Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus Pinyon jay 8.8   f [30]
  Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus Pinyon jay 11.0   x [78]
  Nucifraga columbiana Clark?s nutcracker 17.4   x [30]
  Perisoreus canadensis Gray jay 19.2   x [30]
  Perisoreus canadensis Gray jay 16.0   f [131]
  Perisoreus canadensis Gray jay (+) 14.0   m [131]
  Pica nuttalli Yellow-billed magpie 9.9   f [30]
  Pica nuttalli Yellow-billed magpie (+) 10.0   x [117]
  Pica pica Black-billed magpie 5.0   x [30]
  Pica pica Black-billed magpie 5.9   x [78]
  Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax Cornish chough   20.3 x [50]
Cotingidae Rupicola rupicola Cock-of-the-rock   7.0 x [50]
Drepanididae Hemignathus virens Common amakihi 7.7   x [78]
  Himatione sanguinea Apapane 6.4   x [79]
  Telespyza cantans Laysan finch (+) 6.0   m [79]
  Telespyza ultima Nihoa finch (+) 11.0   x [79]
Emberizidae Aimophila aestivalis Bachman?s sparrow 3.0   x [57]
  Aimophila quinquestriata Five-striped sparrow 4.0   x [96]
  Aimophila ruficeps Rufous-crowned sparrow (+) 3.2   x [79]
  Ammodramus caudacutus Sharp-tailed sparrow 10.0   m [54]
  Ammodramus caudacutus Sharp-tailed sparrow 6.0   f [54]
  Ammodramus maritimus Seaside sparrow 8.9   x [78]
  Ammodramus maritimus Seaside sparrow 9.0   m [114] [133]
  Ammodramus maritimus Seaside sparrow 9.0   f [114] [133]
  Ammodramus maritimus nigrescens (Dusky) seaside sparrow 8.3   m [79]
  Ammodramus savannarum Grasshopper sparrow (+) 3.1   x [79]
  Amphispiza bilineata Black-throated sparrow (+) 6.0   f [79]
  Calamospiza melanocorys Lark bunting (+) 4.0   m [79]
  Calcarius lapponicus Lapland longspur (+) 5.0   x [79]
  Calcarius pictus Smith?s longspur 5.0   m [14]
  Calcarius pictus Smith?s longspur (+) 4.0   f [14]
  Cardinalis cardinalis Northern cardinal 15.8   f [79]
  Cardinalis sinuatus Pyrrhuloxia (+) 5.8   m [79]
  Chondestes grammacus Lark sparrow (+) 7.8   x [79]
  Cyanerpes caeruleus Purple sugar bird   17.0 x [50]
  Guiraca caerulea Blue grosbeak 5.9   m [79]
  Junco hyemalis ssp. Dark-eyed (slate-colored) junco 10.8   m [79]
  Junco hyemalis ssp. Dark-eyed (gray-headed) junco (+) 10.7   x [79]
  Junco hyemalis ssp. Dark-eyed (Oregon) junco (+) 9.8   x [79]
  Junco hyemalis ssp. Dark-eyed (white-winged) junco (+) 6.6   x [79]
  Junco phaeonotus ssp. Yellow-eyed (Mexican) junco (+) 6.6   x [79]
  Melospiza georgiana Swamp sparrow (+) 4.8   x [79]
  Melospiza lincolnii Lincoln?s sparrow 7.6   x [79]
  Melospiza melodia Song sparrow (+) 11.3   x [79]
  Passerculus sandwichensis Savannah sparrow (+) 6.1   x [79]
  Passerella iliaca Fox sparrow (+) 9.7   x [79]
  Passerina amoena Lazuli bunting 8.9   x [78]
  Passerina amoena Lazuli bunting 4.9   m [79]
  Passerina ciris Painted bunting (+) 10.5   f [79]
  Passerina cyanea Indigo bunting 11.0   m [87] [110]
  Passerina cyanea Indigo bunting 11.0   f [87] [110]
  Pheucticus ludovicianus Rose-breasted grosbeak 7.3   x [78]
  Pheucticus melanocephalus Black-headed grosbeak   25.0 x [143]
  Pheucticus melanocephalus Black-headed grosbeak 9.1   m [79]
  Pipilo aberti Abert?s towhee 8.6   x [79]
  Pipilo chlorurus Green-tailed towhee (+) 7.7   X [79]
  Pipilo erythrophthalmus Rufous-sided towhee (+) 12.3   m [79]
  Pipilo erythrophthalmus ssp. Rufous-sided (spotted) towhee (+) 10.7   m [79]
  Pipilo fuscus Brown towhee (+) 12.8   m [79]
  Piranga ludoviciana Western tanager (+) 7.9   m [79]
  Piranga olivicea Scarlet tanager (+) 10.1   m [79]
  Piranga rubra Summer tanager 7.3   x [78]
  Piranga rubra Summer tanager (+) 6.0   m [79]
  Plectrophenax hyperboreus Mckay?s bunting 4.8   f [79]
  Plectrophenax nivalis Snow bunting 8.8   x [79]
  Pooecetes gramineus Vesper sparrow 7.9   x [78]
  Pooecetes gramineus Vesper sparrow (+) 6.9   x [79]
  Spiza americana Dickcissel 4.0   m [79]
  Spizella arborea American tree sparrow 10.1   x [79]
  Spizella breweri Brewer?s sparrow 5.2   x [79]
  Spizella pallida Clay-colored sparrow 5.1   x [79]
  Spizella passerina Chipping sparrow 9.8   x [79]
  Spizella pusilla Field sparrow 8.8   x [78]
  Spizella pusilla Field sparrow (+) 7.8   x [79]
  Sporophila torqueola White-collared seedeater 11.7   f [79]
  Zonotrichia albicollis White-throated sparrow 9.7   x [79]
  Zonotrichia atricapilla Golden-crowned sparrow (+) 10.5   x [79]
  Zonotrichia leucophrys ssp. (Gambel?s) white-crowned sparrow 13.3   x [79]
  Zonotrichia querula Harris? sparrow 11.7   x [79]
Fringillidae Carduelis flammea Common redpoll (+) 5.8   m [79]
  Carduelis hornemanni Hoary redpoll 4.6   x [78]
  Carduelis pinus Pine siskin 9.4   x [79]
  Carduelis psaltria Lesser goldfinch 5.7   f [79]
  Carduelis tristis American goldfinch 11.0   x [94]
  Carduelis tristis American goldfinch 9.3   x [78]
  Carpodacus cassinii Cassin?s finch (+) 7.0   m [79]
  Carpodacus mexicanus House finch 1.1   x [78]
  Carpodacus mexicanus House finch 11.6   m [79]
  Carpodacus purpureus Purple finch (+) 11.8   m [79]
  Coccothraustes vespertinus Evening grosbeak 15.3   m [79]
  Fringilla coelebs Chaffinch   29.0   [99]
  Leucosticte arctoa atrata (Black) rosy finch 5.7   x [79]
  Leucosticte arctoa ssp. (Gray-crowned) rosy finch(+) 6.6   f [79]
  Loxia curvirostra Red crossbill 4.2   x [79]
  Loxia leucoptera White-winged crossbill   4.0 x [2]
  Pinicola enucleator Pine grosbeak 9.7   m [79]
  Serinus canarius House canary   24.0 x [82]
  Serinus canarius domesticus House canary   22.0 m [50]
Hirundinidae Hirundo fulva Cave swallow 4.8   x [78]
  Hirundo fulva Cave swallow 9.3   x [142]
  Hirundo pyrrhonota Cliff swallow 11.0   x [15]
  Hirundo pyrrhonota Cliff swallow 9.0   m [30]
  Hirundo pyrrhonota Cliff swallow 10.0   x [78]
  Hirundo rustica Barn swallow 8.1   f [30]
  Progne subis Purple martin 13.8   x [30]
  Riparia riparia Bank swallow 8.0   f [30]
  Stelgidopteryx ruficollis Rough-winged swallow 5.9   x [30]
  Tachycineta bicolor Tree swallow 11.0   f [30]
  Tachycineta bicolor Tree swallow 8.9   x [20] [66]
[68]
  Tachycineta thalassina Violet-green swallow 6.8   m [30]
Icteridae Agelaius phoeniceus Red-winged blackbird 15.8   m [79]
  Dolichonyx oryzivorus Bobolink 9.0   x [11]
  Dolichonyx oryzivorus Bobolink 8.1   x [78]
  Euphagus carolinus Rusty blackbird 8.8   x [32]
  Euphagus cyanocephalus Brewer?s blackbird (+) 11.0   m [79]
  Icterus cucullatus Hooded oriole 6.0   m [79]
  Icterus galbula ssp. Northern (Baltimore) oriole 11.6   f [79]
  Icterus galbula ssp. Northern (bullock?s) oriole 6.6   m [79]
  Icterus parisorum Scott?s oriole (+) 6.4   m [79]
  Icterus pectoralis Spot-breasted oriole (+) 11.6   x [79]
  Icterus spurius Orchard oriole 9.3   x [78]
  Icterus spurius Orchard oriole 9.6   x [79]
  Molothrus aeneus Bronzed cowbird 3.6   m [79]
  Molothrus ater Brown-headed cowbird 16.9   x [78]
  Molothrus ater Brown-headed cowbird 15.8   m [79]
  Quiscalus major Boat-tailed grackle (+) 11.9   x [79]
  Quiscalus mexicanus Great-tailed grackle 12.5   m [79]
  Quiscalus quiscula Common grackle 20.9   m [79]
  Sturnella magna Eastern meadowlark 9.0   x [86]
  Sturnella neglecta Western meadowlark   10.0 m [86]
  Sturnella neglecta Western meadowlark   9.0 f [86]
  Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus Yellow-headed blackbird   16.0 m [1]
  Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus Yellow-headed blackbird 10.9   m [79]
Irenidae Irena turcosa Turquoise fairy bluebird (+)   16.1 x [50]
Laniidae Lanius excubitor Northern shrike (+) 3.3   x [77]
  Lanius ludovicianus Loggerhead shrike 6.1   x [78]
  Lanius ludovicianus Loggerhead shrike (+) 12.5   x [77]
Mimidae Dumetella carolinensis Gray catbird 10.9   x [77]
  Mimus polyglottos Northern mockingbird 20.0   x [61]
  Toxostoma bendirei Bendire?s thrasher 4.2   x [77]
  Toxostoma curvirostre Curve-billed thrasher 10.8   x [77]
  Toxostoma dorsale Crissal thrasher 4.4   x [77]
  Toxostoma lecontei Leconte?s thrasher 5.7   m [77]
  Toxostoma longirostre Long-billed thrasher 7.3   x [77]
  Toxostoma redivivum California thrasher 6.9   x [77]
  Toxostoma rufum Brown thrasher (+) 12.8   x [77]
Motacillidae Anthus rubescens American pipit 5.1   x [77]
  Anthus spinoletta Water pipit (+) 5.1   f [77]
Muscicapidae Muscicapa striata Spotted flycatcher   11.8 x [50]
Nectariniidae Nectarinia asiatica Purple sunbird   22.0 m [50]
Oriolidae Orioles xanthornus Black-hooded oriole (hang-nest)   15.5 x [50]
  Sphecotheres viridis Green figbird (hang-nest)   18.0 f [50]
Paradisaeidae Paradisea apoda Bird of paradise   12.1 x [50]
Paridae Parus atricapillus Black-capped chickadee 12.4   x [30] [128]
  Parus bicolor ssp. Tufted (eastern) titmouse 13.3   x [30]
  Parus bicolor ssp. Tufted (western) titmouse 4.8   x [30]
  Parus carolinensis Carolina chickadee 10.9   x [30]
  Parus cinctus Siberian tit 7.0   x [139]
  Parus gambeli Moutain chickadee 10.1   m [30]
  Parus hudsonicus Boreal chickadee 4.7   x [78]
  Parus inornatus Plain titmouse 8.0   x [30]
  Parus major Great titmouse   9.0 x [50]
  Parus rufescens Chestnut-backed chickadee 7.8   x [30]
  Parus sclateri Mexican chickadee 5.0   x [44]
  Parus wollweberi Bridled titmouse 6.6   x [30]
Parulidae Cardellina rubrifrons Red-faced warbler (+) 3.0   m/f [92]
  Dendroica caerulescens Black-throated blue warbler 9.7   x [78]
  Dendroica caerulescens Black-throated blue warbler (+) 8.0   f [77]
  Dendroica castanea Bay-breasted warbler 3.4   x [78]
  Dendroica coronata sp. Yellow-rumped (Audubon?s) warbler 6.6   x [77]
  Dendroica coronata sp. Yellow-rumped (myrtle) warbler 6.9   x [77]
  Dendroica discolor Prairie warbler (+) 10.3   m [77]
  Dendroica dominica Yellow-throated warbler 5.1   x [78]
  Dendroica fusca Blackburnian warbler 8.2   m [78]
  Dendroica kirtlandii Kirtland?s warbler 9.0   m [93]
  Dendroica kirtlandii Kirtland?s warbler 8.0   f [93]
  Dendroica magnolia Magnolia warbler 6.9   x [111]
  Dendroica palmarum hypochrysea Yellow palm warbler (+) 5.8   x [77]
  Dendroica palmarum palmarum Western palm warbler (+) 6.6   x [77]
  Dendroica pensylvanica Chestnut-sided warbler 6.9   x [77]
  Dendroica petechia Yellow warbler (+) 8.9   m [77]
  Dendroica pinus Pine warbler (+) 6.8   x [77]
  Dendroica striata Blackpoll warbler 4.3   x [78]
  Dendroica striata Blackpoll warbler 3.4   f [77]
  Dendroica tigrina Cape May warbler (+) 4.3   f [77]
  Dendroica townsendi Townsend?s warbler 3.6   x [78]
  Dendroica virens Black-throated green warbler 5.9   m [77]
  Geothlypis trichas Common yellowthroat (+) 9.9   f [77]
  Helmitheros vermivorus Worm-eating warbler (+) 7.1   x [77]
  Icteria virens Yellow-breasted chat (+) 8.9   x [77]
  Limnothlypis swainsonii Swainson?s warbler 7.8   x [77]
  Mniotilta varia Black and white warbler 11.3   f [77]
  Myioborus pictus Painted redstart 6.6   x [78]
  Myioborus pictus Painted redstart 4.3   m [77]
  Oporonis tolmiei Macgillivray?s warbler 4.1   x [78]
  Oporornis agilis Connecticut warbler 4.3   x [77]
  Oporornis formosus Kentucky warbler (+) 6.0   m [77]
  Oporornis philadelphia Mourning warbler (+) 7.9   m [77]
  Oporornis tolmiei Macgillivray?s warbler 4.1   m [78]
  Parula americana Northern parula (+) 4.9   f [77]
  Protonotaria citrea Prothonotary warbler 4.9   m [77]
  Seiurus aurocapillus Ovenbird 9.0   x [77]
  Seiurus motacilla Louisiana waterthrush 8.0   x [53]
  Seiurus novaeboracensis Northern waterthrush 8.9   x [78]
  Setophaga ruticilla American redstart 10.0   m [77]
  Vermivora celata Orange-crowned warbler (+) 6.8   m [77]
  Vermivora chrysoptera Golden-winged warbler (+) 7.9   m [77]
  Vermivora leucobronchialis Brewster?s warbler (+) 6.0   m [77]
  Vermivora luciae Lucy?s warbler 5.8   x [78]
  Vermivora peregrina Tennessee warbler (+) 6.4   f [77]
  Vermivora pinus Blue-winged warbler 7.9   x [77]
  Vermivora ruficapilla Nashville warbler 7.3   f [77]
  Vermivora virginiae Virginia?s warbler 4.1   x [78]
  Vermivora virginiae Virginia?s warbler 3.2   x [77]
  Wilsonia canadensis Canada warbler 8.0   x [78]
  Wilsonia canadensis Canada warbler 7.9   f [77]
  Wilsonia citrina Hooded warbler 8.0   x [77]
  Wilsonia pusilla Wilson?s warbler (+) 6.8   m [77]
Passeridae Passer domesticus House sparrow 13.3   x [79]
  Passer italiae Italian sparrow   20.0 x [98]
  Passer montanus Eurasian tree sparrow 4.0   x [79]
  Bubalornis albirostris African ox birds   20.0 x [50]
Polioptilidae Auriparis flaviceps Verdin (+) 5.6   x [77]
  Polioptila caerulea Blue-gray gnatcatcher (+) 4.2   x [77]
Prunellidae Prunella modularis occidentalus Hedge sparrow   8.3 x [50]
Pycnonotidae Pycnonotus jocusus Red-whiskered bulbul 4.0   x [77]
Regulidae Regulus calendula Ruby-crowned kinglet (+) 5.6   x [77]
  Regulus satrapa Golden-crowned kinglet (+) 5.3   m [77]
Sittidae Sitta canadensis Red-breasted nuthatch 7.5   m [77]
  Sitta carolinensis White-breasted nuthatch 9.8   x [77]
  Sitta pusilla Brown-headed nuthatch (+) 5.8   x [77]
  Sitta pygmaea Pygmy nuthatch (+) 8.2   x [77]
Sturnidae Acridotheres cristatellus Crested myna   13.0 x [50]
  Acridotheres cristatellus Crested myna 11.2   x [70]
  Lamprotornis caudatus Long-tailed glossy starling   17.8 x [50]
  Spreo hildebrandti Hildebrandt?s starling   16.9 x [50]
  Spreo hildebrandti Hildebrandt?s starling   16.0 f [50]
  Sturnus vulgaris European starling 21.3   x [43]
  Sturnus vulgaris European starling (+)   15.8   [50] [98]
Sylviidae Acrocephalus familiaris Millerbird (+) 4.2   x [77]
  Acrocephalus stentorous brunnescens Indian great reed warbler   6.6 x [50]
  Chamaea fasciata Wrentit (+) 12.6   x [77]
  Phylloscopus borealis Arctic warbler 3.1   m [77]
  Sylvia borin Garden warbler   24.0 m [50]
  Sylvia communis communis Whitethroat   6.3 x [50]
Timaliidae Leiothrix lutea Red-billed leothrix   15.0 x [50]
  Turdoides temicolor Bengal jungle babbler   16.5 x [50]
Troglodytidae Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus Cactus wren 6.3   x [77]
  Thryomanes bewickii Bewick?s wren 8.0   x [78]
  Thryomanes bewickii Bewick?s wren (+) 7.6   x [77]
  Thryothorus ludovicianus Carolina wren 6.1   x [77]
  Troglodytes aedon House wren (+) 7.1   x [77]
  Troglodytes troglodytes Winter wren (+) 4.1   m [77]
Turdidae Catharus fuscescens Veery 10.1   x [39]
  Catharus guttatus Hermit thrush (+) 8.7   x [77]
  Catharus minimus Gray-cheeked thrush (+) 7.3   x [77]
  Catharus ustulatus Swainson?s thrush (+) 10.1   f [77]
  Hylocichla mustelina Wood thrush (+) 8.9   x [77]
  Ixoreus naevius Varied thrush 4.8   x [78]
  Ixoreus naevius Varied thrush (+) 3.6   m [77]
  Sialia currucoides Mountain bluebird 4.8   x [77]
  Sialia mexicanus Western bluebird (+) 4.3   m [77]
  Sialia sialis Eastern bluebird 8.0   x [77]
  Turdus migratorius American robin (+) 13.9   x [77]
  Turdus migratorius American robin   12.8 x [98]
Tyrannidae Camptostoma imberbe Northern beardless tyrannulet 4.8   x [78]
  Contopus borealis Olive-sided flycatcher 5.9   x [30]
  Contopus borealis Olive-sided flycatcher 7.1   x [78]
  Contopus sordidulus Western wood pewee 6.1   x [30]
  Contopus virens Eastern wood pewee 7.1   m [30]
  Empidonax difficilis Western flycatcher 6.0   f [30]
  Empidonax flaviventris Yellow-bellied flycatcher 3.9   x [30]
  Empidonax fulvifrons Buff-breasted flycatcher (+) 2.0   x [12]
  Empidonax minimus Least flycatcher 5.9   x [30]
  Empidonax minimus Least flycatcher 8.0   x [78]
  Empidonax oberholseri Dusky flycatcher 9.0   f [30]
  Empidonax oberholseri Dusky flycatcher 8.2   x [78]
  Empidonax oberholseri Dusky flycatcher (+) 8.0   f [127]
  Empidonax oberholseri Dusty flycatcher (+) 6.0   x [127]
  Empidonax traillii Willow (Traill?s) flycatcher 7.0   x [30]
  Empidonax virescens Acadian flycatcher 10.9   m [30]
  Myiarchus cinerascens Ash-throated flycatcher 4.9   x [30]
  Myiarchus cinerascens Ash-throated flycatcher 9.0   x [78]
  Myiarchus crinitus Great-crested flycatcher 13.9   x [30]
  Myiarchus tyrannulus Brown-crested (Wied?s) flycatcher 8.0   x [30]
  Myiarchus tyrannulus Brown-crested flycatcher 9.9   x [78]
  Pyrocephalus rubinus Vermilion flycatcher 5.5   x [78]
  Sayornis nigricans Black phoebe 3.0   x [30]
  Sayornis nigricans Black phoebe 8.0   x [78]
  Sayornis phoebe Eastern phoebe 9.1   x [30]
  Tyrannus tyrannus Eastern kingbird 9.9   x [30]
  Tyrannus verticalis Western kingbird 6.9   x [30]
Vireonidae Vireo atricapillus Black-capped vireo 7.0   x [55]
  Vireo bellii Bell?s vireo (+) 6.9   x [77]
  Vireo flavifrons Yellow-throated vireo (+) 6.1   x [77]
  Vireo gilvus Warbling vireo (+) 13.1   m [77]
  Vireo griseus White-eyed vireo (+) 7.3   x [77]
  Vireo huttoni Hutton?s vireo 6.5   f [36] [78]
  Vireo olivaceus Red-eyed vireo (+) 10.0   x [77]
  Vireo philadelphicus Philadelphia vireo 8.8   x [77]
  Vireo solitarius Solitary vireo 7.4   x [77]
Zosteropidae Zosterops japonicus Japanese white-eye 5.1   x [78]
Pelecaniformes
Anhingidae Anhinga anhinga American anhinga 11.9   x [29]
  Anhinga anhinga American anhinga   16.4 x [91]
  Anhinga melanogaster Darter (+)   16.0 x [37]
Fregatidae Fregata ariel Lesser frigatebird 17.0   m [29]
  Fregata ariel Lesser frigatebird 23.5   x [78]
  Fregata magnificens Magnificent frigatebird 7.2   f [29]
  Fregata minor Great frigatebird 30.0   f [29]
  Fregata minor Great frigatebird 34.0   x [37]
Pelecanidae Pelecanus crispus Dalmation pelican   35.3 x [50]
  Pelecanus erythrorhynchos American white pelican   54.0 x [29]
  Pelecanus erythrorhynchos American white pelican 16.0   x [37]
  Pelecanus erythrorhynchos American white pelican 26.4   x [29]
  Pelecanus occidentalis Brown pelican   31.0 x [37]
  Pelecanus onocrotalus White pelican   51.0   [50]
  Pelecanus occidentalis Brown pelican 19.7   x [29]
Phaethontidae Phaethon aethereus Red-billed tropicbird 5.25   x [29]
  Phaethon aethereus Red-billed tropicbird (+) 10.0   x [37]
  Phaethon rubricauda Red-tailed tropicbird 16.1   x [29]
  Phaethon rubricauda Red-tailed tropicbird 9.0   x [37]
  Phaethon rubricauda Red-tailed tropicbird 23.8   x [78]
Phalacrocoracidae Phalacrocorax aristotelis Shag   14.3 x [50]
  Phalacrocorax auritas Double-breasted cormorant 17.8   x [29] [78]
  Phalacrocorax carbo Great cormorant 14.3   x [29]
  Phalacrocorax carbo Great cormorant 18.0   x [37]
  Phalacrocorax olivaceus Olivaceous cormorant 12.6   x [29]
  Phalacrocorax pelagicus Pelagic cormorant 17.8   x [29]
  Phalacrocorax penicillatus Brandt?s cormorant 9.4   x [29]
  Phalacrocorax purpurascens Macquarie shag 13.0   x [37]
Sulidae Morus bassanus Northern gannet 20.3   x [29]
  Morus bassanus Gannet   12.8 x [50]
  Sula (= Morus) bassanus Northern gannet (+) 25.0   x [37]
  Sula (= Morus) bassanus Northern gannet 20.4   x [78]
  Sula dactylatra Masked booby 25.3   x [29]
  Sula dactylatra Masked booby (+) 23.0   x [37]
  Sula leucogaster Brown booby 16.1   f [29]
  Sula leucogaster Brown booby 24.6   f [78]
  Sula serrator Australian gannet (+) 33.0   x [37]
  Sula sula Red-footed booby 21.9   x [29]
  Sula sula Red-footed booby 23.0   x [37]
Phoenicopteriformes
Phoenicopteridae Phoenicopterus ruber American flamingo 13.2   x [29]
  Phoenicopterus ruber Greater flamingo (+) 33.0 44.0 x [37]
Piciformes
Picidae Colaptes auratus Northern flicker 12.5   x [30]
  Colaptes auratus ssp. Northern (yellow-shafted) flicker 9.2   m [30]
  Colaptes auratus ssp. Northern (red-shafted) flicker 6.7   x [30]
  Colaptes auratus ssp. Northern (gilded) flicker 6.3   x [30]
  Colaptes auratus ssp. Common (red-shafted) flicker 7.6   x [78]
  Dryocopus pileatus Pileated woodpecker 9.0   x [19] [67]
  Dryocopus pileatus Pileated woodpecker 9.9   f [30]
  Dryocopus pileatus Pileated woodpecker 9.9 9.4 x [78]
  Melanerpes aurifrons Golden-fronted woodpecker 5.7   m [30]
  Melanerpes carolinus Red-bellied woodpecker 12.1   m [30]
  Melanerpes erythrocephalus Red-headed woodpecker 9.9   x [30]
  Melanerpes formicivorus Acorn woodpecker 16.0   m [80]
  Melanerpes formicivorus Acorn woodpecker 15.0   f [80]
  Melanerpes uropygialis Gila woodpecker 7.8   m [30]
  Picoides borealis Red-cockaded woodpecker 13.8   f [30]
  Picoides borealis Red-cockaded woodpecker (+) 12.0   x [69]
  Picoides borealis Red-cockaded woodpecker   13.0 f [69]
  Picoides pubescens Downy woodpecker 11.4   m [30]
  Picoides scalaris Ladder-backed woodpecker 4.5   m [30]
  Picoides villosus Hairy woodpecker 15.8   f [30]
  Sphyrapicus varius Yellow-bellied sapsucker 6.8   m [30]
Podicipediformes
Podicipedidae Aechmophorus accidentalis Western grebe 6.6   m [78]
  Aechmophorus occidentalis Western grebe 14.0   x [41]
  Podiceps auritus Horned grebe 5.2   x [29]
  Podiceps grisegena Red-necked grebe 4.8   x [78]
  Podiceps nigricollis Eared grebe 5.2   x [29]
  Tachybaptus ruficollis Little grebe 13.0   x [37]
Procellariformes
Diomedeidae Diomedea albatrus Short-tailed albatross 17.3   x [29]
  Diomedea amsterdamensis Amsterdam albatross 40.0   x [37]
  Diomedea bulleri Buller?s albatross (+) 30.0   x [37]
  Diomedea chlororhynchos Yellow-nosed albatross 37.0   x [37]
  Diomedea chrysostoma Gray-headed albatross (+) 30.0   x [37]
  Diomedea epomophora Royal albatross 58.0   x [37]
  Diomedea exulans Wandering albatross 40.0   x [37]
  Diomedea immutabilis Laysan albatross 53.0   x [37] [45]
  Diomedea immutablis Laysan albatross 37.4   x [29]
  Diomedea irrorata Waved albatross 40.0   x [37]
  Diomedea melanophris Black-browed albatross 34.0   x [37]
  Diomedea nigripes Black-footed albatross 27.7   x [29]
  Diomedea nigripes Black-footed albatross 27.0   x [58]
Hydrobatidae Hydrobates pelagicus European storm petrel (+) 20.0   x [37]
  Oceanodroma furcata Fork-tailed storm petrel 6.0   x [29]
  Oceanodroma furcata Fork-tailed storm petrel (+) 9.0   f [78]
  Oceanodroma homochroa Ashy storm petrel 8.0   x [29]
  Oceanodroma leucorhoa Leach?s storm petrel 29.0   m [29]
  Oceanodroma leucorhoa Leach?s storm petrel 31.0   x [37]
  Oceanodroma leucorhoa Leach?s storm petrel (+) 24.0   m [78]
  Oceanodroma tristrami Sooty storm petrel 9.8   x [29]
Procellariidae Bulweria bulwerii Bulwer?s petrel 22.0   x [29]
  Daption capense Cape petrel 20.0   x [37]
  Fulmarus glacialis Northern fulmar 7.3   x [29]
  Fulmarus glacialis Northern fulmar 48.0   x [37]
  Pagodroma nivea Snow petrel 20.0   x [37]
  Procellaria parkinsoni Black petrel 17.0   x [37]
  Pterodroma alba Phoenix Island petrel 11.3   x [29]
  Pterodroma hypoleuca Bonin Island petrel 10.7   x [29]
  Pterodroma leucoptera Gould?s petrel 20.0   x [37]
  Pterodroma macroptera Great-winged petrel (+) 18.0   x [37]
  Pterodroma phaeopygia Darked-rump petrel 7.0   x [29]
  Puffinus auricularis Townsend?s shearwater (+) 5.1   x [78]
  Puffinus lherminieri Audobon?s shearwater 19.0   x [37]
  Puffinus nativitatis Christmas Island shearwater 10.8   x [29]
  Puffinus pacificus Wedge-tailed shearwater 14.0   x [29]
  Puffinus pacificus Wedge-tailed shearwater 16.8   x [78]
  Puffinus puffinus Manx shearwater 4.8   x [37]
  Puffinus puffinus Manx shearwater 30.0   x [78]
  Puffinus tenuirostris Short-tailed shearwater 30.0   x [37]
  Puffinus gravis Greater shearwater 7.1   x [29]
Psittaciformes
Cacatuidae Cacatua moluccensis Rose-crested cockatoo   25.1 x [50]
  Cacatua roseicapilla Roseate cockatoo   26.3 x [50]
  Calyptorhynchus banksii Banksian cockatoo   29.3 x [50]
Psittacidae Amazona auropaleiata Golden-naped parrot   49.0 x [50]
  Ara ararauna Blue and yellow macaw   43.0 x [50]
  Ara chloroptera Red and yellow macaw (+)   30.0 x [50]
  Ara macao Red and blue macaw   64.0 x [50]
  Ara militaris Military macaw   30.0 x [50]
  Aratinga holochlora Mexican conure   22.5 x [50]
  Myiopsitta monacha Quaker parakeet   17.8 x [50]
  Nandayus nenday Paraguayan black-headed conure   18.2 x [50]
  Nestor notabilis Kea   14.4 x [50]
  Poicephalus meyeri transvaalensis Brown parrot   34.2 x [50]
  Poicephalus rufiventris Red-breasted parrot   33.4 x [50]
  Psittacus erithacus African grey parrot   73.0 x [50]
Sphenisciformes
Spheniscidae Aptenodytes patagonica King penguin   26.0 x [50]
  Aptenodytes patagonica King penguin   23.7 x [50]
  Spheniscus magellanicus Magellanic penguin 13.0   x [125]
Strigiformes
Strigidae Aegolius acadicus Northern saw-whet owl 7.3   x [26]
  Aegolius acadicus Northern saw-whet owl 7.4   x [30]
  Aegolius acadicus Northern saw-whet owl 7.0 16.0 x [78]
  Aegolius funereus Boreal owl 3.4   x [81]
  Aegolius funereus Boreal owl 11.0   m [60]
  Asio flammeus Short-eared owl 12.9   x [33]
  Asio otus Long-eared owl 27.8   x [30] [33]
  Athene cunicularia Burrowing owl 8.7   x [76]
  Bubo virginianus Great horned owl 17.3   x [30]
  Bubo virginianus Great horned owl 20.6   x [78]
  Micrathene whitneyi Elf owl 4.9   x [78]
  Nyctea scandiaca Snowy owl 10.8   f [78]
  Nyctea scandiaca Snowy owl 9.4 28.0 x [9] [123]
  Otus asio Eastern screech-owl 14.2   x [52]
  Otus flammeolus Flammulated owl (+) 8.1   x [119]
  Otus kennicottii Western screech-owl 12.9   x [30]
  Scotiaptex lapponica Lap owl   27.0 x [50]
  Strix nebulosa Great gray owl (+) 13.0   f [18]
  Strix nebulosa Great gray owl 9.0   x [105]
  Strix occidentalis Spotted owl (+) 17.0 25.0 x [56]
  Strix varia Barred owl 10.1   f [30]
  Strix varia Barred owl 18.2   x [78]
Tytonidae Tyto alba Common barn-owl 15.4   x [30]
  Tyto alba Barn owl   13.0 x [50]
Struthioniformes
Struthionidae Struthio camelus Ostrich   50.0 x [82]
  Struthio camelus molybdophanes Somali ostrich   26.1 x [50]
Tinamiformes
Tinamidae Tinamus solitarius Solitary tinamou   15.0 x [37]
Trochiliformes
Trochilidae Archilochus colubris Ruby-throated hummingbird 6.3   f [30]
  Archilochus colubris Ruby-throated hummingbird 9.0   x [78]
  Calothorax lucifer Lucifer hummingbird 4.0   x [126]
  Calypte anna Anna?s hummingbird 6.0   f [30]
  Calypte anna Anna?s hummingbird 6.3   x [78]
  Lamprolaima rhami Garnet-throated hummingbird(+) 8.0   m [31]
  Selasphorus platycercus Broad-tailed hummingbird 7.1   m [23]
  Selasphorus platycercus Broad-tailed hummingbird 12.2   f [22]
  Selasphorus platycercus Broad-tailed hummingbird 12.1   f [30]
  Selasphorus platycercus Broad-tailed hummingbird 8.0   x [78]
  Selasphorus rufus Rufous hummingbird 4.1   x [78]
  Selasphorus sasin Allen?s hummingbird 3.9   f [30]
  Selasphorus sasin Allen?s hummingbird 4.0   x [78]
  Stellula calliope Calliope hummingbird 6.1   f [24]
  Stellula calliope Calliope hummingbird 6.0   x [78]

Category: Rehabilitation Articles
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